Compounds for the treatment of psychiatric or substance abuse disorders

ABSTRACT

The invention provides methods for treating or preventing psychiatric and substance abuse disorders, involving administration of a therapeutically-effective amount of a cytosine-containing or cytidine-containing compound, creatine-containing compound, adenosine-containing, or adenosine-elevating compound to a mammal.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

The application claims priority to U.S. Provisional application Nos.60/189,727, 60/189,811, and 60/189,728, filed Mar. 16, 2000.

STATEMENT AS TO FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was funded, in part, by grants DA09448 and DA11321, fromthe National Institute on Drug Abuse, and MH-48343 and MH-53636 from theNational Institute of Mental Health. The government may have certainrights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to methods for the treatment of psychiatric orsubstance abuse disorders.

Psychiatric and substance abuse disorders present unique complicationsfor patients, clinicians, and care givers. These disorders are difficultto diagnose unequivocally and fear of societal condemnation, as well aslack of simple and effective therapies, often results in patients whoare reluctant to disclose their symptoms to health professionals,leading to adverse societal and health consequences.

Psychiatric and substance abuse disorders include alcohol and opiateabuse or dependence, depression, dysthymia, and attention-deficithyperactivity disorder, among others, and occur in people of all agesand backgrounds.

Use of substances such as alcohol and opiates often leads to addictionand dependence on these substances, causing a variety of adverseconsequences, including clinical toxicity, tissue damage, physicaldependence and withdrawal symptoms, and an impaired ability to maintainsocial and professional relationships. The etiology of substance abuseor dependence is unknown, although factors such as the user's physicalcharacteristics (e.g., genetic predisposition, age, weight),personality, or socioeconomic class have been postulated to bedeterminants.

Depression and dysthymia are prevalent disorders that are often chronicand associated with frequent relapses and long duration of episodes.These disorders include psychosocial and physical impairment and a highsuicide rate among those affected. A lifetime prevalence ofapproximately 17% has been widely reported, and the likelihood ofrecurrence is more than 50% (Angst, J. Clin. Psychiatry 60 Suppl. 6:5-9,1999). The neurological mechanisms underlying depression and dysthymiaare poorly understood, with a concomitant lack in suitablepharmacological therapies for the treatment of these disorders. Currenttherapies often have many adverse effects and are not suitable foradministration to certain cohorts. For example, depression in theelderly, particularly in those in long-term care facilities, is commonand is often more refractory to treatment than depression in young ormiddle-aged adults; however, the elderly are particularly sensitive tothe common adverse effects of many antidepressant drugs, particularlythe anticholinergic side effects. Similarly, therapies that are suitablefor administration to adults may not be suitable for children.

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a highly heritableand prevalent neuropsychiatric disorder estimated to affect 6% of theschool-age children in the United States. ADHD typically occurs in earlychildhood and persists into adulthood, but is often not diagnosed untilor after adolescence. Clinical hallmarks of ADHD are inattention,hyperactivity, and impulsivity, which often respond to treatment withstimulants (e.g., methylphenidate, dextroamphetamine, or magnesiumpemoline), although non-stimulant drugs such as beta-blockers (e.g.,propranolol or nadolol), tricyclic antidepressants (e.g., desipramine),and anti-hypertensives (e.g., clonidine) are also used. Treatment withthese drugs, however, is complicated by adverse effects, including thepossibility of abuse of the medication, growth retardation, disturbanceof heart rhythms, elevated blood pressure, drowsiness, depression, sleepdisturbances, headache, stomachache, appetite suppression, reboundreactions, and by the unclear long-term effects of drug administrationon brain function.

Simple and effective pharmacological treatments for these disorders haveproven scarce to date. It would be beneficial to providepharmacotherapies suitable for administration to all populations,including the elderly and children, for the treatment of substance abuseand psychiatric disorders.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In general, the invention features methods of treating substance abuseor psychiatric disorders, for example, alcohol or opiate abuse ordependency, unipolar depression or dysthymia, or attention-deficithyperactivity disorder, by administering a therapeutically-effectiveamount of a cytidine-containing, cytosine-containing,creatine-containing, uridine-containing, adenosine-containing, oradenosine-elevating compound to a mammal. Any of thecytidine-containing, cytosine-containing, creatine-containing,uridine-containing, adenosine-containing, or adenosine-elevatingcompounds of the invention may be administered separately.

In preferred embodiments, the cytidine-containing compound is cytidine,CDP, or CDP-choline; the cytidine-containing compound includes choline;and the mammal is a human child, adolescent, adult, or older adult. Inother preferred embodiments, the CDP-choline is administered orally andthe administration is chronic.

In other preferred embodiments, a brain phospholipid (e.g., lecithin) ora brain phospholipid precursor (e.g., a fatty acid or a lipid), is alsoadministered to the mammal. In other preferred embodiments, anantidepressant is also administered to the mammal.

In other preferred embodiments, the mammal has a co-morbid neurologicaldisease, for example, post-stroke depression.

As used herein, by “alcohol” is meant a substance containing ethylalcohol.

By “opiate” is meant any preparation or derivative of opium, which is anaturally occurring substance extracted from the seed pod of a poppyplant (e.g., Papaver somniferum) and which contains at least one of anumber of alkaloids including morphine, noscapine, codeine, papaverine,or thebaine. Heroin, an illegal, highly addictive drug is processed frommorphine. For the purposes of this invention, the term opiate includesopioids.

By “opioid” is meant a synthetic narcotic that resembles an opiate inaction, but is not derived from opium.

By “abuse” is meant excessive use of a substance, particularly one thatmay modify body functions, such as alcohol or opiates.

By “dependency” is meant any form of behavior that indicates an alteredor reduced ability to make decisions resulting, at least in part, fromthe use of alcohol or opiates. Representative forms of dependencybehavior may take the form of antisocial, inappropriate, or illegalbehavior and include those behaviors directed at the desire, planning,acquiring, and use of alcohol or opiates. This term also includes thepsychic craving for alcohol or an opiate that may or may not beaccompanied by a physiological dependency, as well as a state in whichthere is a compulsion to take alcohol or an opiate, either continuouslyor periodically, in order to experience its psychic effects or to avoidthe discomfort of its absence. Forms of “dependency” includehabituation, that is, an emotional or psychological dependence onalcohol or an opiate to obtain relief from tension and emotionaldiscomfort; tolerance, that is, the progressive need for increasingdoses to achieve and sustain a desired effect; addiction, that is,physical or physiological dependence which is beyond voluntary control;and use of alcohol or an opiate to prevent withdrawal symptoms.Dependency may be influenced by a number of factors, including physicalcharacteristics of the user (e.g., genetic predisposition, age, gender,or weight), personality, or socioeconomic class.

By “dysthymia” or “dysthymic disorder” is meant a chronically depressedmood that occurs for most of the day, more days than not, for at leasttwo years. In children and adolescents, the mood may be irritable ratherthan depressed, and the required minimum duration is one year. Duringthe two year period (one year for children or adolescents), anysymptom-free intervals last no longer than 2 months. During periods ofdepressed mood, at least two of the following additional symptoms arepresent: poor appetite or overeating, insomnia or hypersomnia, lowenergy or fatigue, low self-esteem, poor concentration or difficultymaking decisions, and feelings of hopelessness. The symptoms causeclinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational(or academic), or other important areas of functioning. The diagnosis ofdysthymia is not made if: the individual has ever had a manic episode, amixed episode, a hypomanic episode; has ever met the criteria for acyclothymic disorder; the depressive symptoms occur exclusively duringthe course of a chronic psychotic disorder (e.g., schizophrenia); or ifthe disturbance is due to the direct physiological effects of asubstance or a general medical condition. After the initial two-years ofdysthymic disorder, major depressive episodes may be superimposed on thedysthymic disorder (“double depression”). (Diagnostic and StatisticalManual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV), American Psychiatric Press, 4^(th)Edition, 1994).

By “unipolar depression” or “major depressive disorder” is meant aclinical course that is characterized by one or more major depressiveepisodes in an individual without a history of manic, mixed, orhypomanic episodes. The diagnosis of unipolar depression is not made if:manic, mixed, or hypomanic episodes develop during the course ofdepression; if the depression is due to the direct physiological effectsof a substance; if the depression is due to the direct physiologicaleffects of a general medical condition; if the depression is due to abereavement or other significant loss (“reactive depression”); or if theepisodes are better accounted for by schizoaffective disorder and arenot superimposed on schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, delusionaldisorder, or psychotic disorder. If manic, mixed, or hypomanic episodesdevelop, then the diagnosis is changed to a bipolar disorder. Depressionmay be associated with chronic general medical conditions (e.g.,diabetes, myocardial infarction, carcinoma, stroke). Generally, unipolardepression is more severe than dysthymia.

The essential feature of a major depressive episode is a period of atleast two weeks during which there is either depressed mood or loss ofinterest or pleasure in nearly all activities. In children andadolescents, the mood may be irritable rather than sad. The episode maybe a single episode or may be recurrent. The individual also experiencesat least four additional symptoms drawn from a list that includeschanges in appetite or weight, sleep, and psychomotor activity;decreased energy; feelings of worthlessness or guilt; difficultythinking, concentrating, or making decisions; or recurrent thoughts ofdeath or suicidal ideation, plans, or attempts. Each symptom must benewly present or must have clearly worsened compared with the person'spreepisode status. The symptoms must persist for most of the day, nearlyevery day, for at least two consecutive weeks, and the episode must beaccompanied by clinically significant distress or impairment in social,occupational (or academic), or other important areas of functioning.(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV),American Psychiatric Press, 4^(th) Edition, 1994).

By “neurological disease” is meant a disease, which involves theneuronal cells of the nervous system. Specifically included are priondiseases (e.g., Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease); pathologies of thedeveloping brain (e.g., congenital defects in amino acid metabolism,such as argininosuccinicaciduria, cystathioninuria, histidinemia,homocystinuria, hyperammonemia, phenylketonuria, tyrosinemia, andfragile X syndrome); pathologies of the mature brain (e.g.,neurofibromatosis, Huntington's disease, depression, amyotrophic lateralsclerosis, multiple sclerosis); conditions that strike in adulthood(e.g. Alzheimer's disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Lewy body disease,Parkinson's disease, Pick's disease); and other pathologies of the brain(e.g., brain mishaps, brain injury, coma, infections by various agents,dietary deficiencies, stroke, multiple infarct dementia, andcardiovascular accidents). By “co-morbid” or “co-morbidity” is meant aconcomitant but unrelated pathology, disease, or disorder. The termco-morbid usually indicates the coexistence of two or more diseaseprocesses.

By “attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder” or “ADHD” is meant abehavioral disorder characterized by a persistent and frequent patternof developmentally inappropriate inattention, impulsivity, andhyperactivity. Indications of ADHD include lack of motor coordination,perceptual-motor dysfunctions, EEG abnormalities, emotional lability,opposition, anxiety, aggressiveness, low frustration tolerance, poorsocial skills and peer relationships, sleep disturbances, dysphoria, andmood swings (“Attention Deficit Disorder,” The Merck Manual of Diagnosisand Therapy (₁₇th Ed.), eds. M.H. Beers and R. Berkow, Eds., 1999,Whitehouse Station, NJ).

By “treating” is meant the medical management of a patient with theintent that a cure, amelioration, or prevention of a disease,pathological condition, or disorder will result. This term includesactive treatment, that is, treatment directed specifically towardimprovement of a disease, pathological condition, or disorder, and alsoincludes causal treatment, that is, treatment directed toward removal ofthe cause of the disease, pathological condition, or disorder. Inaddition, this term includes palliative treatment, that is, treatmentdesigned for the relief of symptoms rather than the curing of thedisease, pathological condition, or disorder; preventive treatment, thatis, treatment directed to prevention of the disease, pathologicalcondition, or disorder; and supportive treatment, that is, treatmentemployed to supplement another specific therapy directed toward theimprovement of the disease, pathological condition, or disorder. Theterm “treating” also includes symptomatic treatment, that is, treatmentdirected toward constitutional symptoms of the disease, pathologicalcondition, or disorder.

By “therapeutically-effective amount” is meant an amount of acytidine-containing, cytosine-containing compound, a uridine-containingcompound, a creatine-containing compound, an adenosine-containingcompound, and an adenosine-elevating compound sufficient to produce ahealing, curative, prophylactic, stabilizing, or ameliorative effect inthe treatment of attention-deficit hyperactive disorder, unipolardepression, dysthymia, alcohol abuse, alcohol dependency, opiate abuse,or opiate dependency.

By “cytidine-containing compound” is meant any compound that includes,as a component, cytidine, CMP, CDP, CTP, dCMP, dCDP, or dCTP.Cytidine-containing compounds can include analogs of cytidine. Preferredcytidine-containing compounds include, without limitation, CDP-cholineand cytidine 5′-diphosphocholine, frequently prepared as cytidine5′-diphosphocholine [sodium salt] and also known as citicoline.

By “cytosine-containing compound” is meant any compound that includes,as a component, cytosine. Cytosine-containing compounds can includeanalogs of cytosine.

By “adenosine-containing compound” is meant any compound that includes,as a component, adenosine. Adenosine-containing compounds can includeanalogs of adenosine.

By “adenosine-elevating compound” is meant any compound that elevatesbrain adenosine levels, for example, compounds which inhibit or alteradenosine transport or metabolism (e.g., dipyridamole orS-adenosylmethionine).

By “uridine-containing compound” is meant any compound that includes asa component, uridine or UTP. Uridine-containing compounds can includeanalogs of uridine, for example, triacetyl uridine.

By “creatine-containing compound” is meant any compound that includes asa component, creatine. Creatine-containing compounds can include analogsof creatine.

By “phospholipid” is meant a lipid containing phosphorus, e.g.,phosphatidic acids (e.g., lecithin), phosphoglycerides, sphingomyelin,and plasmalogens. By “phospholipid precursor” is meant a substance thatis built into a phospholipid during synthesis of the phospholipid, e.g.,fatty acids, glycerol, or sphingosine.

By “child or adolescent” is meant an individual who has not attainedcomplete growth and maturity. Generally, a child or adolescent is undertwenty-one years of age.

By “older adult” is meant an individual who is in the later stage oflife. Generally, an older adult is over sixty years of age.

The present invention provides therapeutics for the treatment ofsubstance abuse or dependencies, unipolar depression or dysthymia, andADHD. The compounds utilized herein are relatively non-toxic, andCDP-choline, uridine, and triacetyl uridine, in particular, arepharmocokinetically understood and known to be well tolerated bymammals. The present invention, therefore, provides treatments that arelikely to have few adverse effects and may be administered to childrenand adolescents, as well as the elderly, or those whose health iscompromised due to existing physical conditions.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a bar graph showing the relative efficacies of CDP-choline andfluoxetine.

FIG. 2 is a graph showing phosphorus-31 MRS data from the human brain.

FIG. 3A is a T1 weighted anatomical image of the basal ganglia andthalamus, indicating regions of interest, used to sample the T2relaxation times, for C (caudate), P (putamen), and T (thalamus).

FIG. 3B is a scatter plot of individual T2 relaxation times for theright putamen of ADHD children treated with placebo and of healthychildren. The increased T2 relaxation times seen in the ADHD sampleindicate diminished regional blood volume.

FIG. 4A is a graph showing the association between T2-RT in rightputamen and accuracy on the performance of the computerized attentiontask for children with ADHD on placebo (closed circles) and normalcontrols (open circles). As indicated there is a significant inverselinear correlation between accuracy and T2 relaxation time (higherlevels of T2-RT indicate lower perfusion).

FIG. 4B is a graph showing the percent change in T2-RT in the rightputamen following treatment with methylphenidate in children with ADHD.Note that the degree of response is affected by the baseline level ofactivity. The higher the temporal scaling the greater the activity ofthe subject. T2-RT change values below zero indicate enhanced regionalblood volume following methylphenidate administration.

FIG. 5 is a schematic illustration of the molecular structure ofCDP-choline.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention described herein features methods for the treatment ofpsychiatric or substance abuse disorders such as alcohol and opiateabuse or dependence, unipolar depression, dysthymia, attention-deficithyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and their symptoms.

To this end, the invention features the use of cytidine-containing,cytosine-containing, uridine-containing, creatine-containing,adenosine-containing, and adenosine-elevating compounds to alleviatesymptoms of these disorders. A preferred cytidine-containing compound isCDP-choline (also referred to as citicoline or CDP choline [sodiumsalt]), a preferred adenosine-containing compound isS-adenosylmethionine (SAMe), and a preferred uridine-containing compoundis triacetyl uridine.

The cytidine-containing, cytosine-containing, uridine-containing,creatine-containing, adenosine-containing, or adenosine-elevatingcompounds may be co-administered with other compounds that areprecursors for the synthesis of brain phospholipids, e.g., fatty acids,lipids, or lecithin.

Unipolar Depression or Dysthymia

The invention provides original data regarding the efficacy ofCDP-choline in human trials and demonstrates that cytidine-containingand cytosine-containing compounds can be used to treat depression.CDP-choline has been found to have two important new therapeuticproperties. First, CDP-choline improves brain chemistry, e.g., increasesphospholipid synthesis, in healthy adults. This effect is particularlyapparent in older adults. Second, CDP-choline has antidepressant effectsthat are similar to those of fluoxetine, a widely-used drug for thetreatment of depression.

Cytidine-containing and cytosine-containing compounds are particularlyefficacious in treating the elderly, and these compounds are efficaciousin treating depression in patients with a co-morbid neurological disease(e.g., post-stroke depression). In addition, these compounds may beadministered in conjunction with, and thereby work synergistically with,phospholipids (e.g., lecithin) or compounds that are precursors for thesynthesis of brain phospholipids (e.g., fatty acids or lipids).

Alcohol or Opiate Abuse or Dependence

Phosphorus-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) studies indicatethat persons who are dependent upon alcohol and opiates have decreasedbrain levels of phospholipids. In addition, data derived from healthyolder persons, indicates that chronic administration of CDP-choline isassociated with neurochemical changes consistent with phospholipidsynthesis. Increasing brain levels of cytosolic adenosine also provideseffective therapy for alcohol or opiate abuse or dependency, becauseenergy in the form of ATP is required to support phospholipid synthesis.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiments in childrendiagnosed with ADHD indicate that symptoms of hyperactivity andinattention are strongly correlated with measures of blood flow withinthe putamen nuclei, which are strongly dopaminergic brain regions. Inaddition, administration of methylphenidate, a stimulant used to treatADHD, increases blood flow in the putamen in parallel with a decrease inmotor activity. ADHD symptoms may be closely tied to functionalabnormalities in the putamen, which is predominantly involved in theregulation of motoric behavior. Accordingly, because cytidine-containingand cytosine-containing compounds (e.g., CDP-choline) have dopaminergicactivity, these compounds may be used to treat persons diagnosed withADHD without many of the side effects associated with stimulanttherapies. In particular, treatments with cytidine-containing orcytosine-containing compounds are effective in treating hyperactivity inchildren diagnosed with ADHD.

Cytidine-Containing and Cvtosine-Containing Compounds

Useful cytidine-containing or cytosine-containing compounds may includeany compound comprising one of the following: cytosine, cytidine, CMP,CDP, CTP, dCMP, dCDP, and dCTP. Preferred cytidine-containing compoundsinclude CDP-choline and cytidine 5′-diphosphocholine [sodium salt]. Thislist of cytidine-containing and cytosine-containing compounds isprovided to illustrate, rather than to limit the invention, and thecompounds described above are commercially available, for example, fromSigma Chemical Company (St. Louis, Mo.).

CDP-choline is a naturally occurring compound that is hydrolyzed intoits components of cytidine and choline in vivo. CDP-choline issynthesized from cytidine-5′-triphosphate and phosphocholine withaccompanying production of inorganic pyrophosphate in a reversiblereaction catalyzed by the enzyme CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase(Weiss, Life Sciences 56:637-660, 1995). CDP-choline is available fororal administration in a 500 mg oblong tablet. Each tablet contains522.5 mg CDP-choline sodium, equivalent to 500 mg of CDP-choline.Matching placebo tablets are also available. The excipients contained inboth active and placebo tablets are talc, magnesium stearate, colloidalsilicon dioxide, hydrogenated castor oil, sodiumcarboxy-methylcellulose, and microcrystalline cellulose. The molecularstructure of CDP-choline [sodium salt] is provided in FIG. 5.

Other formulations for treatment or prevention of psychiatric andsubstance abuse disorders may take the form of a cytosine-containing orcytidine-containing compound combined with a pharmaceutically-acceptablediluent, carrier, stabilizer, or excipient.

Adenosine-Containing and Adenosine-Elevating Compounds

Adenosine-containing or adenosine-elevating compounds provide usefultherapies because these compounds provide the ATP needed forphospholipid synthesis. Useful adenosine-containing oradenosine-elevating compounds include, without limitation, any compoundcomprising one of the following adenosine, ATP, ADP, or AMP. Onepreferred adenosine-containing compound is S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe).

In addition, compounds are known that are capable of increasingadenosine levels by other mechanisms. For example, adenosine uptake canbe inhibited by a number of known compounds, including propentofylline(described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,919,789, hereby incorporated byreference). Another known compound that inhibits adenosine uptake isEHNA.

Other useful compounds that can be used to increase brain adenosinelevels are those that inhibit enzymes that break down adenosine, (e.g.,adenosine deaminase and adenosine kinase). Finally, administeringcompounds that contain adenosine or precursors of adenosine, which arereleased as adenosine in vivo, can also be used.

Uridine-Containing Compounds

Uridine and uridine-containing compounds provide useful therapiesbecause these compounds can be converted to CTP, a rate-limiting factorin PC biosynthesis (Wurtman et al., Biochemical Pharmacology 60:989-992,2000). Useful uridine-containing compounds include, without limitation,any compound comprising uridine, UTP, UDP, or UMP. A preferreduridine-containing compound is triacetyl uridine. Uridine anduridine-containing compounds and analogs are well tolerated in humans.

Creatine-Containing Compounds

Creatine and creatine-containing compounds provide useful therapiesbecause these compounds, by virtue of increasing brain phospholipidlevels, can raise the levels of ATP. Creatine and creatine-containingcompounds are known to be well tolerated at relatively high doses inhumans.

Administration

Conventional pharmaceutical practice is employed to provide suitableformulations or compositions for administration to patients. Oraladministration is preferred, but any other appropriate route ofadministration may be employed, for example, parenteral, intravenous,subcutaneous, intramuscular, intracranial, intraorbital, ophthalmic,intraventricular, intracapsular, intraspinal, intracisternal,intraperitoneal, intranasal, or aerosol administration. Therapeuticformulations may be in the form of liquid solutions or suspensions (as,for example, for intravenous administration); for oral administration,formulations may be in the form of liquids, tablets, or capsules; andfor intranasal formulations, in the form of powders, nasal drops, oraerosols.

Methods well known in the art for making formulations are described, forexample, in “Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy” (19th ed.)ed. A. R. Gennaro, 1995, Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa.Formulations for parenteral administration may, for example, containexcipients, sterile water, saline, polyalkylene glycols such aspolyethylene glycol, oils of vegetable origin, or hydrogenatednapthalenes.

If desired, slow release or extended release delivery systems may beutilized. Biocompatible, biodegradable lactide polymer,lactide/glycolide copolymer, or polyoxyethylene-polyoxypropylenecopolymers may be used to control the release of the compounds. Otherpotentially useful parenteral delivery systems include ethylene-vinylacetate copolymer particles, osmotic pumps, implantable infusionsystems, and liposomes. Formulations for inhalation may containexcipients, for example, lactose, or may be aqueous solutionscontaining, for example, polyoxyethylene-9-lauryl ether, glycocholateand deoxycholate, or may be oily solutions for administration in theform of nasal drops, or as a gel.

Preferably, the compounds of the invention, such as CDP-choline, areadministered at a dosage of at least 500 mg twice daily by oraladministration. Orally administered CDP-choline is bioavailable, withmore than 99% of CDP-choline and/or its metabolites absorbed and lessthan 1% excreted in feces. CDP-choline, administered either orally orintravenously, is rapidly converted into the two major circulatingmetabolites, choline and cytidine. Major excretion routes are lung(12.9%) and urine (2.4%); the rest of the dose (83.9%) is apparentlymetabolized and retained in tissues.

In general, the compounds of the invention, such as CDP-choline,uridine, UTP, creatine, or SAMe, are administered at a dosageappropriate to the effect to be achieved and are typically administeredin unit dosage form. The dosage preferably ranges from 50 mg per day to2000 mg per day. The exact dosage of the compound may be dependent, forexample, upon the age and weight of the recipient, the route ofadministration, and the severity and nature of the symptoms to betreated. In general, the dosage selected should be sufficient toprevent, ameliorate, or treat alcohol or opiate abuse or dependency, orone or more symptoms thereof, without producing significant toxic orundesirable side effects. As noted above, the preferred route ofadministration for most indications is oral.

In the case of CDP-choline, there have been no reported cases ofoverdoses. CDP-choline toxicity is largely self-limiting, ingestion oflarge amounts in preclinical studies shows common cholinergic symptoms(salivation, lacrimation, urination, defecation, and vomiting).

Combination with Other Therapeutics

The cytidine-containing, cytosine-containing, uridine-containing,creatine-containing, adenosine-containing, and adenosine-elevatingcompounds of the invention may be administered as a monotherapy, incombination with each other, or in combination with other compounds forthe treatment of psychiatric and substance abuse disorders, includingcompounds for the treatment of alcohol or opiate abuse or dependency, orother physiological or psychological conditions associated with alcoholor opiate abuse or dependency, unipolar depression and dysthymia, andADHD.

Preferably, the compounds of the invention, may be administered inconjunction with lower doses of current treatments for these disorders,including stimulants and antidepressants. For example, the compounds ofthe invention may be administered with phospholipids, e.g., lecithin, orwith brain phospholipid precursors, e.g., fatty acids or lipids, or maybe administered as an adjunct to standard therapy for the treatment ofpsychiatric or substance abuse disorders.

In one particular example, the compound of the invention may beadministered in combination with an antidepressant, anticonvulsant,antianxiety, antimanic, antipyschotic, antiobsessional,sedative-hypnotic, stimulant, or anti-hypertensive medication. Examplesof these medications include, but are not limited to, the antianxietymedications, alprazolam, buspirone hydrochloride, chlordiazepoxide,chlordiazepoxide hydrochloride, clorazepate dipotassium, desipraminehydrochloride, diazepam, halazepam, hydroxyzine hydrochloride,hydroxyzine pamoate, lorazepam, meprobamate, oxazepam, prazepam,prochlorperazine maleate, prochlorperazine, prochlorperazine edisylate,and trimipramine maleate; the anticonvulsants, amobarbital, amobarbitalsodium, carbamazepine, chlordiazepoxide, chlordiazepoxide hydrochloride,clorazepate dipotassium, diazepam, divalproex sodium, ethosuximide,ethotoin, gabapentin, lamotrigine, magnesium sulfate, mephenytoin,mephobarbital, methsuximide, paramethadione, pentobarbital sodium,phenacemide, phenobarbital, phenobarbital sodium, phensuximide,phenytoin, phenytoin sodium, primidone, secobarbital sodium,trimethadione, valproic acid, and clonazepam; the antidepressants,amitriptyline hydrochloride, amoxapine, bupropion hydrochloride,clomipramine hydrochloride, desipramine hydrochloride, doxepinhydrochloride, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, imipramine hydrochloride,imipramine pamoate, isocarboxazid, lamotrigine, maprotolinehydrochloride, nortriptyline hydrochloride, paroxetine hydrochloride,phenelzine sulfate, protriptyline hydrochloride, sertralinehydrochloride, tranylcypromine sulfate, trazodone hydrochloride,trimipramine maleate, and venlafaxine hydrochloride; the antimanicmedications, lithium carbonate and lithium citrate; the antiobsessionalmedications, fluvoxamine, and clomipramine hydrochloride; theantipsychotic medications, acetophenazine maleate, chlorpromazinehydrochloride, chlorprothixene, chlorprothixene hydrochloride,clozapine, fluphenazine decanoate, fluphenazine enathrate, fluphenazinehydrochloride, haloperidol decanoate, haloperidol, haloperidol lactate,lithium carbonate, lithium citrate, loxapine hydrochloride, loxapinesuccinate, mesoridazine besylate, molindone hydrochloride, perphenazine,pimozide, prochlorperazine maleate, prochlorperazine, prochlorperazineedisylate, promazine hydrochloride, risperidone, thioridazine,thioridazine hydrochloride, thiothixene, thiothixene hydrochloride, andtrifluoperzine hydrochloride; the sedative-hypnotic medications,amobarbital, amobarbital sodium, aprobarbital, butabarbital, chloralhydrate, chlordiazepoxide, chlordiazepoxide hydrochloride, clorazepatedipotassium, diazepam, diphenhydramine, estazolam, ethchlorvynol,flurazepam hydrochloride, glutethimide, hydroxyzine hydrochloride,hydroxyzine pamoate, lorazepam, methotrimeprazine hydrochloride,midazolam hydrochloride, non prescription, oxazepam, pentobarbitalsodium, phenobarbital, phenobarbital sodium, quazepam, secobarbitalsodium, temazepam, triazolam, and zolpidem tartrate; the stimulants,dextroamphetamine sulfate, methamphetamine hydrochloride,methylphenidate hydrochloride, and pemoline; and the anti-hypertensive,clonidine.

The following examples are provided for the purpose of illustrating theinvention and should not be construed as limiting.

EXAMPLES

Unipolar Depression or Dysthymia Treatment of Human Subjects withCytidine- or Cytosine-Containing Compounds

Proton and phosphorus magnetic resonance (MR) spectroscopy studies ofsubjects with mood disorders have characterized two patterns of alteredneurochemistry associated with depression. The first pattern indicates achange (increase or decrease) in cytosolic choline, as well as increasedfrontal lobe phosphomonoesters, while the second pattern points todecreased brain purines (cytosolic adenosine- and cytidine-containingcompounds) and decreased nucleoside triphosphates (NTP). The formerresults reflect altered phospholipid metabolism, while the latterresults indicate changes in cerebral energetics. Although fewlongitudinal studies have been conducted, these altered metabolitelevels appear to be mood state, rather than trait, dependent.

To assess whether chronic CDP-choline administration leads to detectablechanges in lipid metabolite resonances in phosphorus-31 MR spectra,eighteen healthy subjects (mean age: 70) were administered 500 mg of anoral formulation of CDP-choline daily for a six week period. From weeks6 to 12, half of the subjects continued to receive CDP-choline and halfreceived placebo in a double-blind fashion. The MR data demonstratedthat CDP-choline treatment was associated with a significant increase inbrain phosphodiesters (p=0.008), a finding that is indicative ofincreased phospholipid synthesis. Neuropsychological testing alsorevealed increases in verbal fluency (p=0.07), verbal learning(p=0.003), visuospatial learning (p=0.0001) across all subjects at weektwelve. CDP-choline administration, therefore, improves measures ofverbal fluency and spatial memory in healthy adults and results inincreased brain phospholipid synthesis in older adults, particularlyduring chronic administration.

In a second study, twelve depressed subjects (mean age 40) received 500mg of an oral formulation of CDP-choline twice daily for eight weeks.With eight weeks of treatment, mean 17-item Hamilton Depression RatingScale (HDRS) scores decreased from 21±3 to 10±7 (p<0.0001). A successfulresponse to CDP-choline was also associated with a reduction in theproton MR spectroscopic cytosolic choline resonance in the anteriorcingulate cortex. Comparable data for forty-one depressed subjectsparticipating in imaging trials and treated with open label fluoxetine,20 mg/day for eight weeks, demonstrated reductions in HDRS scores from21±4 to 11±6 (p<0.0001) (FIG. 1). CDP-choline and fluoxetine wereassociated with complete responses in 6/12 (50%) and 17/41 (41%) of thesubjects, respectively (FIG. 1). In depressed adults, therefore, theantidepressant effects of CDP-choline were comparable to those offluoxetine.

These data represent the first demonstration that human brain lipidmetabolism can be modified using pharmacological strategies, and that,particularly in older adults, treatment is associated with improvedcognitive performance. These data demonstrate that therapeuticstrategies, using cytosine- and cytidine-containing compounds (e.g.,CDP-choline), that are aimed at reversing biochemical alterations arebeneficial for the treatment of depression or dysthymia.

Use of Citicoline in a Rodent Model of Depression

The effects of citicoline were examined in the forced swim test (FST), arodent model of depression. Because citicoline is rapidly converted tocytidine and choline, their effects were also examined in the FST.Citicoline did not have antidepressant effects in rats in the FST over arange of doses (50-500 mg/kg, IP) shown to have neuroprotective effectsin experimental ischemia in rodents. In fact, high doses of citicolineappeared to have small pro-depressant effects in this model. Molarequivalent amounts of cytidine (23.8-238 mg/kg, IP) had significantantidepressant effects in the FST, whereas molar equivalent amounts ofcholine (13.7-136.6 mg/kg, IP) had significant pro-depressant effects.The optimally effective dose of cytidine (238 mg/kg, IP) did not affectlocomotor activity or establish conditioned rewarding effects attherapeutic concentrations.

Alcohol or Opiate Abuse or Dependence

Measurement of Brain Phospholipids

The broad component within the phosphorus-31 MR spectrum, arising fromhuman brain phospholipids, may be measured reliably (FIG. 2).Preliminary results indicate that in persons with alcohol and/or opiatedependence, the intensity of this broad phospholipid resonance isdecreased by 10-15% relative to values for comparison subjects.Accordingly, therapeutic strategies that are aimed at reversing thisbiochemical alteration, for example, by increasing phospholipidsynthesis, are beneficial for the treatment of alcohol and/or opiatedependence.

CDP-choline Administration Leads To Increased Phospholipid Svnthesis

To assess whether chronic CDP-choline administration leads to detectablechanges in lipid metabolite resonances in phosphorus-31 MR spectra,eighteen healthy subjects (mean age: 70) were administered 500 mg of anoral formulation of CDP-choline daily for a six week period. From weeks6 to 12, half of the subjects continued to receive CDP-choline and halfreceived placebo in a double-blind fashion. The MR data demonstratedthat CDP-choline treatment was associated with a significant increase inbrain phosphodiesters (p=0.008), a finding that is indicative ofincreased phospholipid synthesis. Neuropsychological testing alsorevealed increases in verbal fluency (p=0.07), verbal learning(p=0.003), visuospatial learning (p=0.0001) across all subjects at weektwelve. CDP-choline administration, therefore, improves measures ofverbal fluency and spatial memory in healthy adults and results inincreased brain phospholipid synthesis in older adults, particularlyduring chronic administration.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Children Diagnosed with ADHD

A new fMRI procedure (T2 relaxometry or “T2-RT”) was developed toindirectly assess blood volume in the striatum (caudate and putamen) ofboys 6-12 years of age under steady-state conditions. Six healthycontrol boys (10.2±1.5 yr) and eleven boys diagnosed with ADHD (9.3±1.6yr) served as subjects in the study to examine fMRI differences betweenunmedicated healthy controls and ADHD children on either placebo or thehighest dose of methylphenidate. The healthy controls were screenedusing structured diagnostic interview (K-SADS-E; Orvaschel, H. &Puig-Antich, J., The schedule for affective disorders and schizophreniafor school-age children-epidemiologic version (Kiddie-SADS-E),University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1987), were free of any majorpsychiatric disorder, and had no more than 3 out of 9 possible symptomsof inattention or hyperactivity-impulsivity by DSM-IV criteria. Childrenwith ADHD were included if they met criteria for ADHD on structureddiagnostic interview, and had at least 6 of 9 symptoms of inattention orhyperactivity-impulsivity. Children with ADHD took part in a tripleblind (parent, child, rater), randomized, placebo-controlled study ofeffects of methylphenidate (0, 0.5, 0.8, 1.5 mg/kg in divided dose) onactivity, attention, and fMRI. Children with ADHD were treatedcontinuously for one week with placebo or a specific dose ofmethylphenidate and at the end of the week were tested for drug efficacyusing objective measures of attention and activity and fMRI (SeeMethods) within 1-3 hours of their afternoon dose. The time between doseand testing was held constant for each subject throughout the fourtreatment conditions. Activity and attention were evaluated inunmedicated healthy controls using the same procedure as children withADHD, and fMRI followed within the same time frame.

T2 relaxometry, a novel FMRI procedure, was used to derive steady stateblood flow measures and to test for enduring medication effects.Although conventional Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent (BOLD) fMRI is avaluable technique for observing dynamic brain activity changes betweenbaseline and active conditions, thus far it has failed to provideinsight into possible resting or steady-state differences in regionalperfusion between groups of subjects, or to delineate effects of chronicdrug treatment on basal brain function. T2 relaxometry, like BOLD,hinges on the paramagnetic properties of deoxyhemoglobin. However, themismatch between blood flow and oxygen extraction that occurs as anacute reaction to enhanced neuronal activity in BOLD does not persistunder steady state conditions. Instead, regional blood flow is regulatedto appropriately match perfusion with ongoing metabolic demand, anddeoxyhemoglobin concentration becomes constant between regions in thesteady-state. Therefore, regions with greater continuous activity areperfused at a greater rate, and these regions receive, over time, agreater volume of blood and a greater number of deoxyhemoglobinmolecules per volume of tissue. Thus, there is an augmentation in theparamagnetic properties of the region that is detectable as a diminishedT2 relaxation time.

Conventional T2-weighted images provide only a rough estimate of T2,useful for identifying areas of pathology with markedly different T2properties, such as tumors. To calculate T2-RT with sufficient accuracyto be able to reliably perceive small (ca. 2%) differences in T2 of graymatter associated with functional changes in blood volume, we used fastechoplanner imaging to establish a signal intensity decay curve based on32 sequential measures at different echo times. For each of the 32images, a refocused spin echo was observed.

Highly accurate laboratory-based measures of activity and attention wereobtained by having the children perform a computerized vigilance testwhile an infrared motion analysis system captured and recorded movements(see Methods). These findings were used to ascertain associationsbetween regional measures of T2-RT and capacity to inhibit motoractivity to low levels while attending to a monotonous but demandingtask.

As expected, boys with ADHD on placebo did not sit as still as healthycontrols during the attention tests. They spent more time moving(temporal scaling: F_(1,14)=9.42, P=0.008) and had less complex movementpatterns (spatial scaling: F_(1,14)=9.68, P=0.008). On the continuousperformance task (CPT), a measure of attention, children with ADHD wereless accurate (92.0% vs. 97.1%; F_(1,14)=2.94, P=0.10), and had a morevariable response latency (F_(1,14)=3.11, P<0.10), though thesedifferences did not reach statistical significance in this limitedsample.

Differences in the caudate and putamen regions of children with ADHD andhealthy controls, as well as the change in the T2-RT in these regions inresponse to methylphenidate, were also studied by imaging. The thalamuswas evaluated as a contrast region in which group differences or drugeffects were not expected. No significant differences emerged betweenADHD children on placebo and healthy controls in bilateral T2-RTmeasures for the caudate nucleus (F_(1,14)=2.80, P=0.12). In contrast,ADHD children and controls differed markedly in bilateral putamen T2-RTmeasures (77.9±1.1 msec vs. 76.1±1.1 msec; F_(1,14)=9.40, P=0.008). Onaverage, T2-RT was 3.1% higher in ADHD children than in controls in theleft putamen (F_(1,14)=14.5, P=0.002; FIG. 3B) and 1.6% higher in theright (F_(1,14)=2.62, P=0.13).

For healthy controls and ADHD children on placebo, there were marked andsignificant correlations between motor activity and T2-RT for theputamen bilaterally, but not for caudate or thalamus (Table 1A).Temporal scaling and average time spent immobile, two measures ofactivity-inactivity, correlated −0.752 (P<0.001) and −0.730 (P<0.001),respectively with T2-RT in putamen. The complexity of the movementpattern also correlated with T2-RT in putamen (r_(s)=0.630, P<0.01).Similarly, in unilateral analyses, all three motor activity measurescorrelated with T2 measures for both right and left putamen (Table 1A).

There were also robust correlations between measures of CPT performanceand T2-RT in the putamen bilaterally (Table 1B). Accuracy on the CPTcorrelated −0.807 (P<0.0001) with T2-RT, while variability (S.D.) inresponse latency correlated 0.652 (P<0.005). These associations wereobserved in both right and left putamen (Table 1B, FIG. 4A). Inaddition, there was also a significant association between accuracy onthe CPT task and T2-RT for right, but not left, thalamus. As indicatedin FIG. 4A, there is a significant inverse linear correlation betweenaccuracy and T2 relaxation time (higher levels of T2-RT indicate lowerperfusion).

Methylphenidate exerted robust effects on attention, enhancingperformance accuracy (F_(1,10)=5.98, P<0.05) and reducing responsevariability (S.D.) from 242 to 149 msec (F_(1,10)=14.5, P<0.005).Methylphenidate also exerted significant effects on activity, producinga 126% increase in time spent immobile (F_(1,10)=5.47, P<0.05), andincreasing the complexity of the movement pattern (F_(1,10)=5.73,P<0.05). However, drug effects on activity were strongly dependent onthe subject's unmedicated activity level. For instance, spatialcomplexity increased 52.6% in the 6 subjects who were objectivelyhyperactive (at least 25% more active than normal controls) on placebo(F_(1,5)=13.16, P<0.02), but was unaffected (<8% increase) in the 5 ADHDchildren who were not (p>0.6).

T2-RT in both right and left putamen were significantly altered byongoing treatment with methylphenidate (ANCOVA: F_(1,9)=12.81, P=0.006),although the response was strongly tied to the subject's unmedicatedactivity state (Drug x temporal scaling covariant F_(1,9)=11.09,P=0.008; FIG. 4B). Methylphenidate failed to exert significant effectson T2-RT in thalamus (F_(1,9)=0.13, P>0.7). A trend-level difference wasobserved in the right caudate (F_(1,9)=3.85 P=0.08).

Overall, as higher T2-RT corresponds to lower perfusion, the presentfindings of increased T2-RT in the putamen of children with ADHD, andthe correlation between T2-RT and objective markers of disease severity,are consistent with some earlier studies. Furthermore, the presentfindings also suggest that a considerable proportion of the variancebetween subjects in degree of hyperactivity and inattention can beaccounted for by T2-RT differences within the putamen alone.

In summary, boys with ADHD (n=11) had higher T2 relaxation time (T2-RT)measures in putamen bilaterally than healthy controls (n=6; P=0.008).Relaxation times correlated with the child's capacity to sit still(r_(s)=−0.75, P<0.001), and his accuracy in performing a computerizedattention task (r_(s)=−0.81, P <0.001). Blinded, placebo-controlleddaily treatment with methylphenidate significantly altered T2-RT in theputamen of children with ADHD (P=0.006), though the magnitude anddirection of the effect was strongly dependent on the child'sunmedicated activity state. A similar but non-significant trend wasobserved in the right caudate. T2-RT measures in the thalamus did notdiffer significantly between groups, and were not affected bymethylphenidate.

Methods

Assessment of Activity and Attention. Activity and attention data werecollected as previously described (Teicher et al., J. Am. Acad. ChildAdolesc. Psychiatry 35: 334-342, 1996). In brief, children sat in frontof a computer and were evaluated using a simple GO/NO-GO CPT in whichthe subject responds to visual presentation of a target and withholdsresponse to a non-target stimuli that appear in the center of the screenat a fixed 2 second inertial interval (Greenberg et al.,Psychopharmacol. Bull. 23: 279-282,1987). The stimuli are simplegeometric shapes that can be distinguished without right/leftdiscrimination, and are designed to allow children with dyslexia toperform as well as normal controls. Three 5-minute test sessions wererecorded during a 30-minute test period while an infrared motionanalysis system (Qualisys, Glastonbury, Conn.) recorded the movement ofsmall reflective markers attached to the head, shoulder, elbow, and backof the child. The motion analysis system stored the precise vertical andhorizontal position of the centroid of each marker 50 times per secondto a resolution of 0.04 mm.

Results were analyzed using the concept of “micro-events.” A newmicro-event begins when the marker moves 1.0 millimeters or more fromits most recent resting location, and is defined by its position andduration. The spatial scaling exponent is a measure of the spatialcomplexity of the movement path, and is calculated from the logarithmicrate of information decay at progressively lower levels of resolution.The temporal scaling exponent is a scale invariant stochastic measure ofpercent time active. Values range from 0 (immobility) to 1 (incessantactivity), and are calculated from the slope of the log-log relationshipbetween the duration of micro-events and their frequency (Paulus et al.,Neuropsychopharmacology 7:15-31, 1992). Software for presenting stimuli,recording activity, and analyzing results was written by M. Teicher andlicensed to Cygnex Inc (jtaylor@cygnex.com).

T2 Relaxometry FMRI Procedure and Relaxation Time Computations

Children were positioned in the scanner and instructed to remain asstill as possible. Images were acquired using a 1.5-T magnetic resonancescanner (Signa, General Electric Medical Systems, Milwaukee, Wis.)equipped with a whole-body, resonant gradient set capable of echo planarimaging (Advanced NMR Systems, Inc., Wilmington, Mass.), and a standardquadrature head coil for image detection. During each examination, 3categories of images were obtained: (1) Scout images (typicallyT1-weighted sagittal images); (2) High resolution T1-weighted matchedaxial images through the ten planes for which maps of T2 were generated;and (3) 32 spin echo, echoplanar image sets, with TE incremented by 4msec in each consecutive image set (e.g., TE (1)=32 msec, TE (2)=36msec, . . . TE (32)=160 msec) through the same ten axial planes (TR=10sec, Slice thickness=7 mm with a 3 mm skip, in-plane resolution=3.125mm×3.125 mm, FOV=200 mm). The 32 TE-stepped images were then transferredto an off-line workstation and corrected for in plane motion using amodification of the DART image registration algorithm (Maas et al.,Magn. Reson. Med. 37:131-139, 1997). The value of T2-RT was thenestimated on a pixel-wise basis by linear regression of the signalintensity S(x,y,n) assuming an exponential decay of S(x,y,n) with timeconstant T2-RT(x,y), such that 1n S(x,y,TE(n))=1nS(x,y,TE=0)−(TE(n)/T2-RT(x,y)), where (x,y) is the pixel position andTE(n) is the spin-echo time corresponding to the nth image of theseries.

Calculations of regional T2-RT were made for left and right anteriorcaudate, putamen, and thalamus (as a contrast region) using anatomicboundaries observed in T1 weighted images and conservativelycircumscribed to avoid encroaching into ventricular space (see FIG. 3Afor regions of interest). Delineation of regions and analysis of imagingdata was performed on coded images, and the responsible researcher wasblind to the identity, diagnosis, or treatment condition of the subject.T2-RT was calculated from the median value of all the designated pixels,as the median provides a regional estimate less susceptible tocontamination by spurious values from bordering white matter andcerebrospinal fluid regions than the mean.

The intrinsic reliability of the T2-RT measure was determined using awithin subject procedure with head repositioning when necessary. Therewas a lag between end of the first session and start of the secondsession of ca. 5 minutes. Based on 8 within-session comparisons withnormal adult volunteers we observed a correlation of 0.942, and anaverage mean value difference of −0.17% for T2-RT of the putamen.

Statistical Analyses. Differences between groups was assessed usingANCOVA with age as a covariate. Although the groups did not differsignificantly in age, the behavioral and fMRI measures showedage-dependent changes, and ANCOVA minimized this component of the errorvariance. Correlations were calculated using Spearman Rank-Order test.Differences between behavioral and FMRI measures of ADHD subjects onmethylphenidate vs. placebo were assessed using repeated measure ANCOVAwith placebo activity (temporal scaling) as a covariate. This wascrucial in the analysis, as methylphenidate effects are stronglyrate-dependent, and basal activity on placebo accounted for ca. 50% ofthe magnitude of the medication effect.

Other Embodiments

All publications and patent applications mentioned in this specificationare herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if eachindependent publication or patent application was specifically andindividually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

While the invention has been described in connection with specificembodiments thereof, it will be understood that it is capable of furthermodifications and this application is intended to cover any variations,uses, or adaptations of the invention following, in general, theprinciples of the invention and including such departures from thepresent disclosure that come within known or customary practice withinthe art to which the invention pertains and may be applied to theessential features hereinbefore set forth, and follows in the scope ofthe appended claims.

Other embodiments are within the appended claims.

TABLE 1a Spearman Correlation between T2 relaxation time and motorbehavior during CPT. Complexity Rest-Activity Measures Measure RegionsTemporal Scaling % Time Immobile Spatial Scaling Bilateral Caudate−0.098 −0.159 0.064 Putamen −0.752§ −0.73§ 0.63¥ Thalamus 0.152 0.194−0.235 Unilateral R. caudate −0.115 −0.115 0.196 L. caudate −0.199−0.270 0.054 R. putamen −0.77§ −0.748§ 0.618¥ L. putamen −0.691¥ −0.634¥0.534‡ R. thalamus −0.361 0.087 0.029 L. thalamus 0.306 0.270 −0.260 †p= 0.055; ‡p < 0.05; ¥p < 0.005; §p < 0.001

TABLE 1b Spearman Correlation between T2 relaxation time and CPTperformance. Region Accuracy Response SD Bilateral Caudate −0.131 0.027Putamen −0.807§ 0.652¥ Thalamus 0.281 −0.135 Unilateral R. caudate−0.020 −0.048 L caudate −0.357 0.087 R. putamen −0.734§ 0.629¥ L.putamen −0.708¥ 0.538† R. thalamus 0.200 −0.072 L. thalamus 0.366 −0.161†p = 0.10; ‡p < 0.05; ¥p < 0.01; §p < 0.001

1. A method of treating alcohol dependency, comprising administering toan alcohol dependent human a therapeutically-effective amount of acompound selected from the group consisting of a cytidine-containingcompound, a cytosine-containing compound, a creatine-containingcompound, an adenosine-containing compound, and an adenosine-elevatingcompound, wherein said human has a psychological dependence on alcohol.2. The method of claim 1, wherein said cytidine-containing compound iscytidine, which is administered.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein saidcytidine-containing compound further comprises choline, and saidcytidine-containing compound is administered.
 4. The method of claim 1,wherein said cytidine-containing compound is CDP-choline, which isadministered.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein said cytidine-containingcompound is CDP, which is administered.
 6. The method of claim 4,wherein said CDP-choline is administered orally.
 7. The method of claim1, wherein said administering occurs more than once.
 8. The method ofclaim 1, wherein said human is a child or adolescent.
 9. The method ofclaim 1, wherein said human is over sixty years of age.
 10. The methodof claim 1, said method further comprising administering to said human abrain phospholipid or a brain phospholipid precursor, wherein said brainphospholipid precursor is selected from the group consisting of a fattyacid, glycerol, sphingosine, or a lipid.
 11. The method of claim 10.wherein said phosphotipid precursor is a fatty acid.
 12. The method ofclaim 10, wherein said phospholipid precursor is a lipid.
 13. The methodof claim 10, wherein said phospholipid is lecithin.